Fig. 1. The changes in the TDP-43 expression, intracellular localization, and modifications of neurons under the conditions of single and repetitive TBI. Single TBI induces abundant TDP-43 translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm [
223,
224]. Fragmentation [
224] and phosphorylation of TDP-43 [
56,
153,
220,
223] in the cytoplasm are poorly pronounced, with the lack of aggregates. After repetitive brain trauma, TDP-43 shows abundant aggregation in the cytoplasm [
165,
166,
225] which is accompanied by its fragmented [
224,
226] and phosphorylated forms [
152,
220,
226].
